The Minimum Information Principle: How to Keep Flashcards Small and Simple

The minimum information principle is a simple rule for writing flashcards: make each card as small and simple as you can, so it asks for one fact and has one short answer. Instead of one big card that asks you to "describe" a whole topic, you write several little cards, each testing a single piece. It sounds like more work, but small cards are faster to review, easier to grade honestly and much easier to remember.

This guide explains where the principle comes from, why it works, and exactly how to apply it. You'll see more than a dozen before-and-after card rewrites, a step-by-step method for splitting big cards, the mistakes people make when they take the rule too far, and a short exercise to try on your own deck.

Where the minimum information principle comes from

The phrase comes from Piotr Wozniak of SuperMemo World, the company behind the SuperMemo spaced repetition software. In 1999 he published a guide called "Effective learning: Twenty rules of formulating knowledge". It's still one of the most widely shared guides to writing flashcards.

Rule 4 of the twenty is "Stick to the minimum information principle." Wozniak's explanation is that the material you learn should be phrased as simply as possible, with answers kept as short as you can make them. The other rules in his list cover related ideas, and several of them are really the minimum information principle seen from a different angle:

Rule number	Wozniak's rule	How it connects to minimum information
1	Do not learn if you do not understand	Small cards only work when they're pieces of something you understand
2	Learn before you memorize	Get the big picture first, then cut it into small cards
4	Stick to the minimum information principle	The core rule: one fact, one short answer
5	Cloze deletion is easy and effective	Fill-in-the-blank cards are a quick way to make small items
9 and 10	Avoid sets; avoid enumerations	Long lists break the rule; split them up
11	Combat interference	Simple, clear cards are less likely to blur together
12	Optimize wording	Cut every word that doesn't help you recall the answer
14	Personalize and provide examples	A short personal example can make a small card stick
17	Redundancy does not contradict minimum information principle	Many small cards on one fact are fine; one huge card is not

Wozniak wrote from long experience with his own software rather than from a single controlled experiment, so it's fair to treat the twenty rules as expert guidance. The good news is that the core idea lines up well with decades of memory research, which we'll look at next.

Why small cards work: what memory research says

Working memory is tiny

Working memory is the mental "desk" where you hold and work on information right now. It's very small. George Miller's famous 1956 paper, "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two", described a span of about seven items. Later research by Nelson Cowan suggests the true central limit is even smaller. In "The Magical Mystery Four" (2010), he describes a store of about three to five meaningful items in young adults.

A card that asks for six facts at once asks you to juggle more than your working memory comfortably holds. A card that asks for one fact fits easily, leaving room to actually think about the answer.

Cognitive load theory

Cognitive load theory is a research framework, developed largely by the educational psychologist John Sweller, about how the limits of working memory should shape teaching. Jeroen van Merriënboer and Sweller summarize it in "Cognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies" (2010), which offers design guidelines grouped around three goals:

• Reduce extraneous load: the mental effort wasted on things that don't help learning, like confusing wording or hunting for the answer in a paragraph.
• Manage intrinsic load: the effort that comes from the material's own complexity. One common way is to break complex material into smaller parts first.
• Optimize germane load: the effort that actually builds understanding.

The minimum information principle does all three for flashcards. Short, clear wording cuts wasted effort. Splitting a big topic into pieces manages complexity. And a focused question puts your effort right where it belongs: retrieving the one fact you need.

Simple items are easier to retrieve the same way each time

Wozniak gives his own explanation with a memorable picture. He compares recalling a complex card to running through a maze. If there's one fixed path, every review strengthens that same path. If a card can be answered many ways, each review takes a slightly different route, and the routes tangle and interfere with each other. A simple card is a maze with one path.

Small items are easier to schedule

Wozniak's second argument is practical. A complex card made of several sub-facts has to be reviewed often enough to keep its hardest part from slipping. That means you keep reviewing the easy parts much more than they need. Split the card, and each small item can follow its own review schedule. You end up with more cards, but less total review time, and the savings grow the longer you need to remember the material. That matters a lot if you use spaced repetition.

Honest grading needs clear answers

Most flashcard methods depend on you judging whether you got the answer right. That's easy when the answer is a single word or number. It's hard when the answer is a paragraph. With a long answer, it's tempting to give yourself credit for "most of it," and the parts you missed never get extra practice. Small cards make right and wrong obvious, which keeps your review schedule honest. Research on study methods backs the value of getting each item truly right: in their work on how much practice is enough, Katherine Rawson and John Dunlosky had students practice until they recalled each item correctly, a standard that's only meaningful when "correct" is clear.

Before and after: rewriting big cards into small ones

Here's the principle in action. Wozniak's own example uses the Dead Sea: one card with a long paragraph about its location, elevation, length, saltiness, buoyancy and lack of fish, rewritten as a series of short questions, each asking for one fact. The examples below follow the same pattern across subjects. They're illustrative.

Subject	Before (too big)	After (minimum information)
Biology	Q: Describe the mitochondrion. A: A paragraph about structure, function, DNA and origin.	Q: What is the main job of the mitochondrion? A: Making most of the cell's usable energy (ATP). Q: Mitochondria have their own ___. A: DNA.
History	Q: What happened in the American Revolution? A: Several sentences of causes, battles and results.	Q: In what year was the Declaration of Independence adopted? A: 1776. Q: Which treaty ended the American Revolutionary War? A: The Treaty of Paris (1783).
Spanish	Q: Conjugate "hablar" in the present tense. A: Six forms.	Q: "hablar," yo, present? A: hablo. Q: "hablar," nosotros, present? A: hablamos. (One card per form you tend to miss.)
Chemistry	Q: What are the properties of noble gases? A: A list of five properties.	Q: Why are noble gases so unreactive? A: Their outer electron shell is full. Q: Which noble gas is used in bright advertising signs? A: Neon.
Anatomy	Q: Name the four chambers of the heart and what each does.	Q: Which heart chamber pumps blood to the body? A: Left ventricle. Q: Which heart chamber receives blood from the body? A: Right atrium.
Psychology	Q: Explain classical conditioning.	Q: In Pavlov's experiment, what was the conditioned stimulus? A: The bell (or tone). Q: What do we call a response that's learned through pairing? A: A conditioned response.

Notice what changed in every row. Each "after" card asks a specific question, has a short answer you can check in a second, and tests one piece of knowledge. Together, the small cards cover the same ground as the big card, often more.

How to apply the minimum information principle, step by step

1. Understand first. Wozniak's first rule is not to learn what you don't understand. Read the material, ask questions and get the big picture before you write cards. Small cards are pieces of an understanding, not a substitute for one.
2. Find the facts inside the idea. Take your notes on a topic and underline every separate fact: each name, number, definition, cause or step.
3. Write one card per fact. Turn each underlined fact into a question that has exactly one correct, short answer.
4. Trim the wording. Cut every word on the front that doesn't help you recall the answer. Cut every word on the back that isn't the answer itself.
5. Check that the question is specific. If more than one answer could fairly fit, add a little context so only the right one fits. "What's the capital?" needs "of Australia."
6. Break up lists. If an answer is a list, split it into smaller cards (see the next section).
7. Add a link card or two. A few cards that connect facts, like "Why does X lead to Y?", keep your knowledge from becoming a pile of disconnected bits.
8. Review and revise. If a card keeps tripping you up, it's usually still too big or too vague. Split it or reword it.

For a broader walkthrough of card-making, see our guide on how to make flashcards.

Handling lists, sets and sequences

Lists are the hardest case. Wozniak's rules 9 and 10 separate two kinds:

• A set is a group with no natural order, like the members of an organization. Sets are especially hard to recall reliably, because nothing tells you which item comes next or whether you've got them all.
• An enumeration is an ordered list, like the steps of a process or the letters of the alphabet. Order helps, because you produce the items in the same sequence every time, but long enumerations are still hard.

Here are practical ways to tame lists:

Problem	Technique	Example
An unordered set of many items	Give it an order (alphabetical, by date, by size), then treat it as an enumeration	Wozniak turns the European Union's member countries of the time into a short series of cards organized as a timeline of when they joined
A long ordered list	Overlapping fill-in-the-blank cards, each hiding a few items	"A, ___, ___, ___, E" with the answer "B, C, D," then "D, ___, ___, ___, H" and so on
A list with natural groups	Split into groups of three to five and learn each group	Group organelles by job: energy, protein-making, packaging, control
Needing the count	One card asking how many items there are	"How many chambers does the human heart have?" Answer: four
Steps in a process	One card per step, asking what comes after the previous step	"In mitosis, what phase comes after metaphase?" Answer: anaphase

Overlapping cards are the key trick for sequences. Each card overlaps with the next, so the whole chain gets practiced without any single card asking for the full list. The same idea works for poems, speeches and lines in a play: break them into short overlapping chunks you can fill in.

Fill-in-the-blank cards: a fast way to stay small

Wozniak calls cloze deletion "easy and effective," and it's one of the quickest ways to follow the minimum information principle. A cloze deletion card is a sentence with a key word or phrase hidden, which you fill in from memory.

For example, start with a sentence from your notes:

The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, ended the American Revolutionary War.

You can turn it into separate small cards:

• The Treaty of ___, signed in 1783, ended the American Revolutionary War. (Paris)
• The Treaty of Paris, signed in ___, ended the American Revolutionary War. (1783)

Each card hides one thing. Resist the urge to hide three things at once; that turns a small card back into a big one. Our sibling article on cloze deletion goes deeper into this card type.

Worked example: turning a page of notes into small cards

Let's walk through a full makeover. Here's an illustrative paragraph of the kind you might find in a student's biology notes:

Photosynthesis happens in the chloroplasts of plant cells. It uses light energy, water and carbon dioxide to make glucose, and it releases oxygen as a by-product. The green pigment chlorophyll absorbs the light. The process has two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle.

A first-draft card might be "Explain photosynthesis," with the whole paragraph on the back. That card would be slow to review and almost impossible to grade fairly. Here's how to apply the principle instead.

Step 1: find the facts. Reading carefully, the paragraph contains these separate facts:

1. Where photosynthesis happens (chloroplasts).
2. The energy source (light).
3. The two raw materials (water and carbon dioxide).
4. The main product (glucose).
5. The by-product (oxygen).
6. The pigment that absorbs light (chlorophyll).
7. The number of main stages (two).
8. The names of the stages (light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle).

Step 2: write one card per fact.

• Q: In which part of a plant cell does photosynthesis happen? A: The chloroplasts.
• Q: What type of energy powers photosynthesis? A: Light energy.
• Q: Photosynthesis uses water and ___ as raw materials. A: Carbon dioxide.
• Q: Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and ___ as raw materials. A: Water.
• Q: What sugar does photosynthesis produce? A: Glucose.
• Q: What gas does photosynthesis release as a by-product? A: Oxygen.
• Q: Which pigment absorbs light for photosynthesis? A: Chlorophyll.
• Q: How many main stages does photosynthesis have? A: Two.
• Q: Photosynthesis stage one: the ___ reactions. A: Light-dependent.
• Q: Which photosynthesis stage comes after the light-dependent reactions? A: The Calvin cycle.

Step 3: add a link card. One card that connects ideas keeps the facts from floating around on their own:

• Q: Why do plants need chlorophyll for photosynthesis? A: It absorbs the light energy that powers the process.

Notice how the two raw materials became two cards, each hiding one. That's the set rule in action: a two-item set is manageable, but asking for both at once invites a half-right answer you might be tempted to count as correct. Notice, too, that each answer is a word or short phrase you can check instantly. One unfair, slow card became eleven quick, honest ones.

Wording tips for small, clear cards

Wozniak's rule 12 is "Optimize wording." Here are practical ways to do that:

• Start with a question word. "What," "which," "when," "where," "who" and "how many" naturally point to short answers. "Explain" and "describe" naturally point to long ones.
• Put the key term first when you can. "Mitochondria: main job?" is quicker to read than a long sentence that buries the subject at the end.
• Cut filler. "Can you tell me what the name of the…" becomes "Name the…"
• Use a context tag for similar cards. A short label like "Chemistry:" or "Spanish, past tense:" tells your brain which set of knowledge to search, which reduces mix-ups.
• Keep the answer side to the answer. If you want an explanation for your own reference, add it on a separate line labeled "Note," and don't count it when you grade yourself.
• Use your own words. A card in your own phrasing is easier to understand at a glance than a copied textbook sentence.

A quick checklist: is this card small enough?

Run any card through these questions. If it passes all of them, it's in good shape.

1. Does the front ask exactly one question?
2. Is there only one correct answer?
3. Can I say the answer in a few words?
4. Can I grade myself right or wrong in about a second?
5. Does the card still make sense on its own, without the card next to it?
6. Is it clearly different from every other card in my deck?
7. Do I understand the idea behind it?

If you answer "no" to questions 1 through 4, split the card. If you answer "no" to 5, add context. If you answer "no" to 6, reword it to reduce interference. If you answer "no" to 7, go back to your notes or ask your teacher before you keep studying it.

Paper cards and apps: applying the principle in each

Paper cards. Physical cards make the principle almost automatic: a small card has limited space, which nudges you to write less. Use one card per fact, write large and clear, and keep the back short enough to read at a glance. When a list needs overlapping cards, number them so they stay in order. A small index card is a good size check; if your answer doesn't fit comfortably, it's probably too long.

Apps and online flashcard makers. Screens don't run out of room, so it's easy to write long answers without noticing. Set yourself a rule, such as answers no longer than one line, and stick to it. Digital tools make it easy to duplicate a card and change one blank, which is handy for overlapping and cloze cards. If you print digital cards, the small-card habit also keeps text readable at print size; see our guide on how to print flashcards.

Common mistakes and how to fix them

The principle is simple, but people slip in predictable ways. Some make cards too big. Others overcorrect and make cards so tiny they lose their meaning.

Mistake	Why it's a problem	Fix
"Describe" or "explain" cards with paragraph answers	Hard to grade; weak parts hide behind strong parts	Split into specific questions, one per fact
Copying textbook sentences word for word	Extra words add effort without helping recall	Rewrite in your own short words
Vague questions with several possible answers	You might give a right answer and mark it wrong, or the reverse	Add context so only one answer fits
Long lists on one card	Sets and long enumerations are very hard to recall	Order them, group them, or use overlapping cards
Cards so tiny they lose meaning	Facts without context are hard to use and easy to confuse	Keep the context needed to make the question clear
Near-identical cards	Similar cards interfere with each other	Make each card's question clearly different
Memorizing what you don't understand	Wozniak's first rule; you learn words, not knowledge	Understand the idea first, then make small cards

"Small" doesn't mean "stripped of meaning"

It's possible to take the principle too far. A card that just says "1783" on the front and "Paris" on the back is small, but it's meaningless. The goal is the smallest card that still asks a clear, meaningful question. Wozniak's rule 17 makes the related point that redundancy is fine: you can have several small cards approaching the same fact from different angles, such as a word-to-meaning card and a meaning-to-word card, as long as each card stays simple.

Watch out for interference

When cards are very similar, they get confused with each other. Wozniak calls interference a major cause of forgetting for experienced learners. If you notice two cards that you keep mixing up, like two similar-sounding terms, rewrite them so each one has a clear, distinguishing cue. Adding a short personal example helps. Wozniak's own example defines a type of couch by comparing it to a particular one at a friend's parents' house, a link that makes the card both specific and memorable.

Does it really save time?

It's natural to worry that splitting one card into five means five times the work. In practice, it usually goes the other way, for three reasons:

• Each small card is fast to review. You can answer a one-word card in a couple of seconds. A paragraph card takes much longer, every single time.
• Easy pieces drop out of frequent review. As Wozniak explains, the parts you know well get pushed to longer intervals, while only the hard parts come back often. With one big card, the whole thing comes back as often as its hardest piece.
• Fewer stalled cards. Big cards often get marked wrong over and over because of one missing detail. Small cards let you find and fix that exact detail.

Here's simple math with made-up numbers to show the idea. Say one big card has five facts, and you miss one of them every time. You'll keep reviewing all five facts every time that card comes up. Split it into five cards, and only the one hard card keeps coming back often; the other four spread out. You still see the hard fact as often as before, but you've stopped re-reviewing four easy facts over and over.

Why the research on study methods supports small cards

The minimum information principle is about card design, but it fits into what researchers know about effective studying more broadly. In their major review, "Improving Students' Learning With Effective Learning Techniques" (2013), John Dunlosky and colleagues rated practice testing and distributed practice as the two highest-utility study techniques among the ten they examined. Flashcards are a natural tool for both. Small cards make practice testing cleaner, because each test has a clear answer, and they make distributed practice more efficient, because each fact can be scheduled on its own.

The same review rated rereading and highlighting as low utility. A big "describe everything" card often turns into rereading in disguise: you flip it over and read the paragraph instead of truly recalling it. Small cards push you to actually retrieve something, which is the whole point of active recall.

Small cards also connect to the idea of chunking. Research by Mirko Thalmann and colleagues, "How does chunking help working memory?" (2019), found that well-learned chunks free up working memory for other information. Practicing small, clear facts until they're automatic is one way to build those chunks. Our sibling article on chunking memory covers this in more detail.

Special cases

Math and problem solving. Some knowledge isn't a fact; it's a skill. For formulas, small cards work perfectly ("Area of a circle?"). For problem types, put one short problem on each card and check only the final answer. Wozniak's redundancy rule supports adding cards for individual steps of a tricky method.

Languages. Vocabulary fits the principle naturally: one word, one meaning. For words with several meanings, make one card per meaning, each with an example sentence that points to the right sense.

Young children. Kids' cards are usually small already: one letter, one sight word, one picture. The main risk is cards that are too busy visually. Keep pictures simple and the question clear. See our guide to flashcards for kids.

Big professional exams. Medical, nursing and law students often face thousands of facts. The principle matters even more at that scale, because inefficient cards waste a lot of time across a large deck. Pair small cards with a good organization system, as described in how to organize flashcards.

Pictures. Wozniak's rule 8 notes that hiding part of an image, such as one label on a diagram, works as well as hiding a word in a sentence. Keep to one hidden label per card.

Try it yourself: a 15-minute card makeover

1. Pick five of your current cards that you miss most often.
2. For each, count how many separate facts the answer contains.
3. Rewrite each card as one small card per fact, using the step-by-step method above.
4. Check every new card: does it ask a specific question with one short answer you can grade in a second?
5. Study the new cards for a week and compare how often you miss them with how often you missed the originals.

Most people find that the "problem cards" weren't problems with their memory. They were problems with the cards. Once a card asks one clear question, the fact behind it often turns out to be easy to learn, and the review sessions that used to drag start to move quickly again. For more ideas on making cards that last, see how to make flashcards stick.

Make your next deck small and simple

The minimum information principle comes down to one habit: ask one clear question, expect one short answer. Understand the material first, split big ideas into small facts, break up lists, trim the wording and keep enough context for each card to make sense. You'll review faster, grade yourself more honestly and remember more. When you're ready to try it, our free flashcard maker lets you add words and your own pictures, study with flip cards on screen, and print your deck double-sided or as cut-out sheets. Start with five small cards today and build from there.

Big Cards vs. Small Cards, Reason by Reason

This table sums up the reasons the article gives for small cards, and what goes wrong when a card tries to hold too much.

Reason	What goes wrong with a big card	What a small card does
Working memory	Asking for six facts at once is more than working memory comfortably holds	One fact fits easily, leaving room to think about the answer
Cognitive load	Confusing wording and hunting through a paragraph waste mental effort	Short wording, split topics and a focused question put your effort on retrieving
Retrieval	A card that can be answered many ways doesn't strengthen one path each review	One fixed answer strengthens the same path every time
Scheduling	You keep reviewing the easy parts far more than they need	Each fact gets reviewed on its own schedule
Honest grading	With a paragraph for an answer, it's tempting to give yourself credit	A single word or number is easy to judge

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the minimum information principle?

The minimum information principle is a rule for writing flashcards: keep each card as simple as possible, so it asks for one fact and has one short answer. It comes from Piotr Wozniak's 1999 guide, Twenty rules of formulating knowledge, where it's rule number four. Instead of one big card that asks you to describe a whole topic, you write several small cards that each test a single piece. Small cards are faster to review, easier to grade honestly and easier to remember over time.

Who came up with the minimum information principle?

Piotr Wozniak, of SuperMemo World, the company behind the SuperMemo spaced repetition software, described it in his 1999 guide Effective learning: Twenty rules of formulating knowledge. The guide is still widely shared among people who use flashcards and spaced repetition apps. Wozniak based the rules on long experience with his software. The core idea also fits well with memory research on the small capacity of working memory and with cognitive load theory, which recommends breaking complex material into manageable parts.

Won't making more cards take more time?

Usually not, once you count review time. Each small card takes only a few seconds to answer, while a big paragraph card takes much longer every time it comes up. With spaced repetition, the facts you know well get pushed to longer intervals, and only the hard facts come back often. With one big card, all of its facts come back as often as the hardest one. You may spend a few extra minutes writing cards, but you'll usually spend less time reviewing them.

How small is too small for a flashcard?

A card is too small when it loses its meaning. A card that shows just a number on the front and a word on the back may be short, but you won't know what you're being asked. Aim for the smallest card that still asks a clear, meaningful question with one correct answer. Keep enough context so the question can't be read two ways. If a card makes sense only because you remember the card next to it, add a few words of context.

How do I make flashcards for lists?

Avoid putting a long list on one card. If the list has no natural order, give it one, such as alphabetical or by date, or split it into small groups of three to five items with a name for each group. For ordered lists, use overlapping fill-in-the-blank cards that each hide a few items, so the whole sequence gets practiced without any single card asking for everything. Add one card that asks how many items the list contains, so you'll notice if you leave one out.

Is the minimum information principle backed by research?

The rule itself comes from Piotr Wozniak's practical experience rather than from one specific experiment, but it agrees with well-established research. Studies of working memory, such as Nelson Cowan's work, suggest people can hold only about three to five meaningful items at once. Cognitive load theory recommends cutting wasted mental effort and breaking complex material into parts. And reviews of study techniques rate practice testing highly, which works best when each question has a clear answer you can check.

What's the difference between the minimum information principle and cloze deletion?

The minimum information principle is the general goal of keeping each card small and simple. Cloze deletion is one way to reach that goal: you take a sentence and hide one key word or phrase for you to fill in. Wozniak lists cloze deletion as its own rule because it's such a quick way to make small cards from notes or textbooks. The two work together as long as each cloze card hides only one thing; hiding several blanks at once turns a small card back into a big one.

Why do I keep getting the same flashcard wrong?

A card you miss again and again is often a card problem, not a memory problem. Check whether it asks for more than one fact, whether the question could fairly have several answers, or whether it looks a lot like another card in your deck. Split big cards into one card per fact, add a few words of context to vague questions, and reword similar cards so each has a clear, distinguishing cue. Adding a short personal example or a simple picture can also make a stubborn card much easier to remember.

Should flashcard answers be in my own words?

Usually, yes. Writing a card in your own words forces you to understand the idea, which is Wozniak's first rule, and it tends to produce shorter, clearer cards than copying a textbook sentence. The exception is material that has to be exact, such as a formula, a legal definition, a vocabulary word or a quotation. For those, keep the precise wording on the answer side, but still keep the question short and specific so it's obvious what you're being asked to recall.

Can I still learn complex ideas with small cards?

Yes, as long as you understand the idea first. Wozniak's first rule is not to learn what you don't understand, so read and think through the topic before you write cards. Then break the idea into its parts: definitions, causes, steps and examples. Add a few cards that link the parts, such as why one thing leads to another. Together, many small cards can cover a complex idea thoroughly, and they make it easy to spot exactly which part you haven't mastered yet.

Sources

We checked every source below while writing this guide. Last reviewed October 30, 2026, by Joan Ramos.

1. Effective learning: Twenty rules of formulating knowledge (Wozniak, 1999) (SuperMemo World)
2. The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (Miller, Psychological Review, 1956) (Classics in the History of Psychology, York University)
3. The Magical Mystery Four: How is Working Memory Capacity Limited, and Why? (Cowan, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2010) (PubMed, National Library of Medicine)
4. Cognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies (van Merriënboer & Sweller, Medical Education, 2010) (PubMed, National Library of Medicine)
5. Optimizing schedules of retrieval practice for durable and efficient learning: how much is enough? (Rawson & Dunlosky, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 2011) (PubMed, National Library of Medicine)
6. Improving Students' Learning With Effective Learning Techniques (Dunlosky et al., Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2013) (PubMed, National Library of Medicine)
7. How does chunking help working memory? (Thalmann, Souza & Oberauer, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2019) (PubMed, National Library of Medicine)